Why Was the Byzantine Empire Able to Expand to the East in the Late Ninth and Tenth Centuries?

why was the winding pudding stone equal to complicate to the eastern United States in the tardily 9th and ordinal centuries? In the seventh and eighth snow the tortuous empire was overwhelmed by Arab attacks resulting in the dismission of Syria, Egypt and North Africa. The swift loss of the pudding stones take downs and the continuous Arab sieges on Constantinople appeared to be signs of the end of the gnarled Empire. In the modern ninth and 10th centuries however this had changed, surprisingly indoors these centuries the baffling Empire experienced a menstruum of revival.It was a period of affixd trade and prosperity, a revival of the Empires prudence. The voluminouss soldiery had begun a process of transformation through naked as a jaybird military simulated military operation and reorganisation which made it a formidable fight force. Simultaneously as these changes occurred, the Abbasid Caliphate had weakened significantly a slave come down and politic al divisions resulted in the split of the Abbasid Caliphate into trey smaller Caliphates. The combined factors resulted in the expansion of the winding Empire in the east in the late ninth and tenth centuries.The most significant ca purpose for this expansion was the force, specifically the use of new evasive action and the reorganisation of the baffling ground forces. The revival of the snarled thrift was important as the increased trade and prosperity allowed non bad(p) taskation which could then be spent on the military for amend weaponry and unfathomed Cavalry divisions. The revival of the economy is a modify factor however it is subordinate to the army which was crucial. This is because the military success was aflame to a greater degree by leadership and improved tactical manoeuvre rather than weaponry which was influenced by the revival of the economy.Without the introduction of new tactical maneuver and the reorganisation of the gnarly army the tortuou s Empire would non confound been as successful in the expansion in the east. The declivity and the carve up of the Abbasid Caliphate were contributing factors as the emerging Hamdanid Caliphate was weaker than its predecessor making it to a greater extent exposable to attacks. This did not however mean the complete collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate. Its successor the Hamdanid Caliphate was still powerful, thus it was the army mends and new tactics which were the most significant reason in allowing the twisty to defeat the Arabs and make ains in the east. The seventh and eighth centuries were periods characte leap outd by the Themes. These were military districts with their own military governor and individual militia to support each province in response to the new Arab threat. In the ninth and tenth centuries there was a shift in this policy. There was greater need for a military force for offensive assaults rather than en garde purposes. This resulted in the creation of th e Tagmata, a gainful, disciplined and extremely trained army.The knobbed army evolved into a much more offensive tactical social structure the main causes being the need to operate effectively on campaigns which demanded more than the seasonally available theme armies. The shift from regional militias to a professed(prenominal) and closely-disciplined army was crucial for the gnarly Empires expansion in the east. It gave the Empire the susceptibility to give offensive campaigns thereby allowing the Empire to make gains in the east which would not hold back been possible using the thematic militias as they were not suited to such war furtheste.The introduction of new tactics and the reorganisation of the snarled army was a fundamental factor in the expansion in the east during the ninth and tenth centuries. Generals could utilise field manuals which produced a on the table unless hard hitting force at their disposal that could reply appropriately to a range of antithe tic situations. These field manuals also produced military drills to better grow and improve the overall tone of their soldiers. The De Velitatione is one subject of these field manuals it states There is no other possible wayfor you to prepare for warfare except by first exercising and training the army under you command. You must accustom them to, and train them in, the handling of weapons and get them to head for the hills bitter and wearisome tasks and labours. The use of field manuals ultimately improved the quality of the commanders and the soldiers which he controlled. This produced a victor and disciplined Byzantine army which could launch attacks in the east compared to the themed militias. The restructuring of the Byzantine army was important for increasing its force and effectiveness in battle.There was a greater emphasis on the use of heavily armoured cavalry called the Kataphraktoi in the Byzantine army. They were required to gravel iron helmets heavily reinfor ced so as to cover their faces so that only their eyes appear. They should also wear leg guards. They must establish sturdy horses covered in armour of pieces of felt and boiled trounce fastened together down to the knees so that nothing of the horses body appears except its eyes and nostrils. The Kataphraktoi were the elite strike force within the army . The use of heavily armoured cavalry increased the harmful force of the Byzantine army when attacking.The reorganisation and new military tactics of the Byzantine army were important but this was assisted greatly by aptitudeed leadership. In the ninth and tenth century the army benefited from loyal leadership which was imperative for further expansion. The Emperor Nikephorous and the Emperor John I Tzimiskes are examples of excellent leaders. John I Tzimiskes appointed commanders who were known for their skill and experience in military matters. This was crucial as commanders who had experience and were apt would be more able in battle increasing the likelihood of victory in the east.Nikephorous is described as outstripping ein truth man of his contemporaries for wisdom and intelligence. Nikephorous understood the importance of a paid, extremely-trained and equipped army. John Skylitzes notes that Nikephorous enforce additional taxes and even requisitioned supplies so that his army could be well paid and ready for campaign . This is vital as a paid and well supplied army will have greater morale for battle. The improve and the restructuring of the Byzantine army as well as its strong leadership was a decisive factor.The focus of the Byzantine military shifted from the thematic militias to a highly trained and disciplined army capable of defeating the Arabs on numerous occasion including the capture of Crete in 961 and the siege of Tarsos in 965. The revival of the Byzantine economy is an important factor in the Empires ability to expand east in the late ninth and tenth century. A professional, coarse standing army would require a thriving economy to net for it and in the ninth century two-thirds of state expenditure was spent on defence and the army .Constantinople was a major port for trade linking atomic number 63 to Asia. The Byzantine Empire produced valuable, high quality goods such as Byzantine Silk which was traded as far as modern England. There was a six-fold increase in the minting of bronze coins which is evidence of a rise in trade. The rise in trade within the Byzantine Empire increased the governments resources as it benefited from higher tax tax from imports and exports. Increased tax revenue resulted in greater military expenditure providing the military equipment for the army which made it so effective in battle.This can be illustrated by the fact that although average pay increase of some 62 per cent and the rise in the army payroll of 140 per cent, bit the government still ran a surplus . The revival of the Byzantine economy was important, as it he lped to finance and pay for the army yet this is subordinate to the reform of the Byzantine army. The revival of the economy allowed greater financing of the army for weapons and heavy cavalry. This is only a contributing factor to the Byzantine Military gains in the East.Greater emphasis of the Byzantine successes should be placed on the leadership, the reorganisation of the army and the use of new tactics which caused the shift from the thematic militias to a professional army. The spurn of the Abbasid Empire was a significant reason for the expansion of the Byzantine Empire in the east in the late ninth and tenth century. When the Byzantine Empire was experiencing a period of sparing revival, the Abbasid Empire was experiencing stinting decline. The richest area of the Abbasid Empire was Iraq and the government was dependent on the revenue. The tax revenue of the Abbasid Empire was crucial for paying its army which had made the Arabs formidable. The Zanj rising of 869-883 was a serious slave rebellion in south Iraq that threatened the very survival of the caliphate and the struggle against them was a war to the death. The Zanj rebellion was supressed, but the economic consequences were catastrophic for the Abbasid Empire. The slave farming and large scale reclamation of land was never begun again and it seems unlikely that the city of Basra ever fully recovered. This rebellion caused the tax revenue of the Abbasid Empire to fall substantially in the want term from 100 million dirhams to 30 million dirhams by the setoff of the tenth century . The economic decline caused the Abbasid Empire to become more and more unable to pay the salaries of its soldiers triggering instability, compared to the Byzantine Army which was paid regularly. The economic decline produced a period when caliphs succeeded one another with bewildering speed four different rulers being proclaimed and accepted as caliphs, of whom at least three were subsequently killed by assassin ation or rebellion. The Abbasid Empire could no lifelong finance a large army as it had done in the seventh and eighth centuries and it was this inability to pay its soldiers that caused instability in the governing body of the Empire. Ultimately the economic pressure caused the Abbasid Empire to split in the tenth century. In 929 the Independent Umayyad Caliphate in Spain was established and in 969 the Shiite Fatamids seized Egypt. What remained of the Abbasid Empire, closest to the Byzantine Empire was the new Hamdanid Empire. This had significantly less tax revenue and resources at its disposal which meant less revenue to spend on its army.Consequently the Hamdanid Empire was far weaker than its predecessor, making it easier for the Byzantine Empire to expand in the east in a period of economic revival and military reform. The decline of the Abbasid Empire caused the new Arab caliphate to be more susceptible to Byzantine attacks however it was the reform of the army which was t he decisive factor for expansion in the east. Economic decline may have weakened the Abbasids ability to pay its army which caused discontent, yet it was still in a reasonably strong position at the beginning of the tenth century.The death of the Caliph Al Muktafi in 908 attach the high point of the Abbasid revival. Not only were Syria and Egypt subdued but the exchequer was full and the caliph left 15 million dinars. The army seems to have been effective and firmly under the control of the caliph and his civilian administrators. The Abbassid Empire did not split until much later in the tenth century yet the Byzantine Empire was still able to inflict defeats including the battle of Lalakaon in 868 and at the Battle of Bathys Ryax in 872. Therefore the underlining factor which allowed the Byzantine Empire to expand to the east was its own army reforms.Even with the split of the Abbassid Empire and although the Hamdanid Empire was significantly weaker, it was still able to launch su ccessful offensives against the Byzantine Empire. In 956 Saif al Daulah had penetrated deeply into the Byzantine frontier region, caused a great deal of damage and dislocation to the local population and the military command, all told outmanoeuvred his enemy, outwitted them in a short, sharp field action, and returned safely laden with booty. This emphasises that the Arabs were not weakened to such an extent where they could be easily beaten.It also highlighted consequences when the Byzantine commanders failed to follow the strategy. In the ninth and tenth centuries the Byzantine Empire was able to make gains in the east. This was a result of a period of Byzantine revival and the Abbasid Empires decline. The economic revival of the Byzantine Empire was beneficial as there was greater trade which increased tax revenue which in turn paid for the army. The Abbasid Empires economic decline in the long term caused the eventual split of the empire making it much weaker and open to Byza ntine attacks.The most fundamental factor was the reform of the army, the use of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine military. The shift from thematic militias to a disciplined and highly trained army using heavy cavalry was crucial in the expansion in the east. Bibliography HALDON, J. , Byzantium at War, in The Fall of Constantinople The whiff Conquest of Byzantium. Tempus, 2007. HALDON, J. , The Byzantine Wars. Tempus, 2001. HOURANI, A, A. History of the Arab Peoples. Warner Books 2009. KENNEDY, H. , The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. The Islamic skillful East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century.Pearson Education, 1986. 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